Physical Geography

Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science (and is sometimes called Earth System Science).

Physical geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of the natural features and processes of the Earth’s surface. It includes the examination of landforms, climate, vegetation, soils, and water resources. Physical geographers use a range of scientific methods and tools to analyze and understand the complex interactions between the Earth’s physical systems.

Learn about the different branches of geography that fall under the physical geography category: climatology, geomorphology, biogeography, and more.

Global sea level over the past 540 million years, showing the combined effects of tectonic activity (green), long-term ice changes (red), and both together (dark blue). The light blue shading shows the estimated range of short-term sea level fluctuations caused by changes in Earth’s orbit.

Mapping Short-term Sea Level Changes Over 540 Million Years

Caitlin Dempsey

Study maps 540 million years of sea level change, showing major short-term shifts during ice ages driven by Earth's orbital cycles.

A running stream in a forest.

Water Can Take Years to Seep out of Mountains

Caitlin Dempsey

Groundwater stored over many years is a significant contributor to streamflow in Western United States mountains according to a published study.

A photo of a wave spray against a cliff by the ocean.

Study Models How the Behavior of Waves Affects Blue Carbon Storage

Caitlin Dempsey

Bubbles created by the movement of waves can influence how much carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean.

Regional map of the terrestrial ecosystems of the contiguous United States. Source: NatureServe, 2025.

High Resolution Ecosystem Map of the Contiguous United States and Adjacent Areas

Caitlin Dempsey

NatureServe has developed an updated 30-meter hexagon map of regional ecosystems in the contiguous United States and adjacent areas.

An oblique photo from the International Space Station of Lake Chapala in Mexico.

Lake Chapala: a Tectonic Lake at Mexico’s Triple-graben Intersection

Caitlin Dempsey

Lake Chapala was formed at the intersection of three grabens.

Annotated satellite image of the Wayombo River.

Rivers that Flow Backwards

Caitlin Dempsey

Read about how the Amazon once flowed east to west and how the strength of Hurricane Isaac once change the course of the Mississippi river.

Shaded relief map with shades of blue showing the location of an iceberg off the coast of an Antarctic island.

World’s Biggest Iceberg

Caitlin Dempsey

The largest iceberg in the world is A-23A, with an area of about 1,240 square miles.

A satellite imager of an anvil cloud formation over the ocean.

Satellite Imagery of Clouds

Caitlin Dempsey

Listed here are different clouds formations as seen on satellite imagery.

A view of a wetland with marshes on either side of a body of water.

Water on Earth

Caitlin Dempsey

Earth holds trillions of tons of water, mostly in oceans. Only 2.5% is freshwater, primarily found in glaciers, groundwater, lakes, and rivers.

Two world maps shaded in green for 10% and 30% forest area.

Defining How Much of the World is Covered by Forests

Caitlin Dempsey

With no universal definition, mapping and comparing forest coverage around the world is challenging.

A satellite image of a peninsula with a turquoise lake.

Glacial Flour Makes Some Lakes Turquoise

Caitlin Dempsey

Glacial flour, the fine dust created as glaciers move over land, turns lakes a turquoise color by reflecting blue and green light.

Map showing the NDVI anomaly in 2024 compared to average levels from 1991 to 2020). After a couple of years of above average precipitation in Southern California, vegetations levels in the summer of 2024 were 30% greener than average. Map: NASA, public domain.

Hydroclimate Whiplash: the Impact on California Wildfires

Caitlin Dempsey

Hydroclimate whiplash - the rapid swing between drought and heavy precipitation - plays a role in the increasing intensity of California wildfires.

Visualization by NASA showing the retreat of the Smith Glacier grounding line between 1996 and 2011.

Understanding Glacier Grounding Lines

Caitlin Dempsey

Grounding lines are the boundaries where glaciers and ice sheets transition from resting on solid ground to floating on seawater.

Map showing areas of increased artificial lighting in the Arctic, with increases in yellow, decreases in purple, and no change in green, using data from the U.S. DMSP satellites. Map: NASA, public domain.

Increased Light Pollution in the Arctic

Caitlin Dempsey

Satellite data shows rising Arctic nighttime lights, driven by growing industrial activity in oil, gas, and infrastructure.

This 2024 Landsat 8 image shows Yakutat, Alsek, and Grand Plateau Glaciers have retreated up to 7.8 kilometers (4.8 miles), with lakes filling the void. Over 40 years, the lakes more than doubled in size to 240 square kilometers—larger than New York’s Seneca Lake.

The Rise of Proglacial Lakes

Caitlin Dempsey

Glacial retreat in Alaska's Yakutat Foreland has fueled rapid growth of proglacial lakes, doubling their size in 40 years as seen in Landsat imagery.

Satellite image of a piedmont glacier in Alaska with the different lobes labeled.

Largest Piedmont Glacier in North America

Caitlin Dempsey

The largest piedmont glacier in North America is found in southeastern Alaska and is known as the Malaspina Glacier.

Lenticular clouds over a mountain range.

Lenticular Clouds

Caitlin Dempsey

Lenticular clouds are lens-shaped formations that form over mountains when moist air cools and condenses, creating smooth, often UFO-like cloud patterns.

Taken at about 30,000 feet (9 kilometers) over eastern Washington, the smoke plume (gray) feeds the pyrocumulonimbus cloud (white). Photo: David Peterson (U.S. Naval Research Laboratory), public domain, August 8, 2019.

Understanding the Increase in PyroCbs: Wildfire Thunderstorms

Caitlin Dempsey

Fire-triggered thunderstorms called pyroCbs, short for pyrocumulonimbus clouds, is on the rise.

Fire Islands is an Atlantic Ocean barrier island off the southern shore of Long Island, New York. Photo: Jennifer Miselis, USGS. Public domain.

Barrier Islands in the United States

Caitlin Dempsey

Barrier islands are narrow landforms running parallel to coastlines, protecting shores from storms and erosion while supporting unique ecosystems.

A chestnut-backed chickadee on a redwood branch.

Number of “Dees” in a Chickadee’s Alarm Call is Related to the Danger Level of Nearby Predators

Caitlin Dempsey

The number of "dees" in a chickadee's alarm call correlates with the size and threat level of the predator.

A black and white dragonfly resting on a blade of grass.

Tracking Mercury With Dragonflies

Caitlin Dempsey

Published research mapped mercury levels in dragonfly larvae from 73 U.S. parks, revealing how the metal accumulates in the environment.

Gravity wave clouds over a forest on a bright sunny day.

How Undular Bores Show Up in the Clouds

Caitlin Dempsey

Undular bores create distinctive wave-like cloud patterns, such as morning glory clouds, by pushing warm air upward.

A giant sequoia tree at Yosemite National Park's Mariposa Grove of Big Trees.

Geography of Giant Sequoias

Elizabeth Borneman

Giant sequoias are one of the longest lived tree species, with the oldest giant sequoia living an estimated 3,400 years.

A lizard clinging upright on a steep rock with dried grass behind it.

Urbanization is Shortening the Legs of Western Fence Lizards

Caitlin Dempsey

Western fence lizards have adapted to manmade surfaces in urban areas by developing shorter limbs and toes.

An American robin on a tree branch.

Most Abundant Landbird in the United States and Canada

Caitlin Dempsey

The American robin has the largest population among all landbirds in the United States and Canada.

McKinley Lake near Cordova, Alaska

Which States Have the Highest Percentage of Water Area?

Caitlin Dempsey

Water shapes U.S. states' geography and ecosystems. Which states have the highest and lowest percentages of area covered by perennial water?

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